Lecture 5 
      
                                 Anxiety Disorders 2
      
      
      Lecture Outline
      
      I.  Introduction
      II. Generalized Anxiety
      III. Panic Disorder
           A. Panic Attacks
           B. Agoraphobia
      IV. Phobias
           A. Definition
           B. Agoraphobia
           C. Social Phobia
           D. Simple Phobia
      V.  Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
           A. Obsessions
           B. Compulsions
      VI. Post-traumatic stress disorder (not covered)
      VII.Conclusions
      
                     -------------------------------------------
      
      I. Introduction
      
           "The characteristic features of this group of disorders are
      symptoms of anxiety and avoidance behavior" (APA, 1987, p.235).  As we
      discussed in the previous lecture, such symptoms are not limited to
      people suffering anxiety disorders.  To one degree or another, we have
      all experienced these symptoms.  It is when these symptoms become
      disabling that the person suffering from them comes to the attention of
      mental health professionals.  The feelings of anxiety characterizing
      these disorders are persistent and are involved with everyday life
      circumstances.  
           In the next three lectures we will look at these disorders, and
      examine some of the possible explanations and theories about them. 
      Special attention will be paid to Panic disorder and Agoraphobia.
           Today's lecture will present a descriptive overview of the
      different types of Anxiety Disorders.
      
      II. Generalized Anxiety
      
           As the name implies, a person suffering from Generalized Anxiety is
      someone who experiences anxiety and excessive worry most of the time. 
      The anxiety is not about any single life circumstance or situation, and
      it is unrealistic and excessive given the reality of the person's life. 
      The DSM requires that the anxiety be present six months or more, for
      more days than not, before a diagnosis is made.  
           In other words, people with this disorder live in a relatively
      constant state of diffuse and unfocused anxiety, apprehension and dread,
      what Freud called "free floating" anxiety.  Thus, this disorder is
      something much more severe than the common brief periods of mild anxiety
      that most of us experience.
           Various symptoms are associated with this disorder, in addition to
      the experience of anxiety:
      
      1. Motor Tension: twitching, trembling, muscle aches,
      restlessness.
      
      2. Autonomic hyperactivity: shortness of breath, accelerated
      heart rate, sweating, dry mouth, dizziness, nausea, chills.
      
      3. Vigilance and Scanning: feeling keyed-up or on edge, easily
      startled, difficulty concentrating, insomnia, irritability.
      
           Apparently, this is not a very commonly diagnosed disorder (APA,
      1987; Barlow, 1988).  There is confusion among clinicians and
      researchers over the precise nature of Generalized Anxiety Disorder
      (Barlow, 1987).  For example, there is some evidence that people
      diagnosed with GAD may actually be suffering from milder forms of other
      anxiety disorders, such as panic disorder.  It may be more accurate,
      then, to classify these people in these other categories and indicate
      the degree of severity.  Others argue that GAD and Panic disorder
      represent different points on a single dimension of anxiety.  Add to
      this the concern of some clinicians that the diagnostic criteria are too
      vague.  Diagnosis thus tends to be quite unreliable (Barlow, 1988).  The
      DSM-III-R category is substantially revised over the DSM-III, which may
      help clarify some of this confusion.  For example, the symptom list has
      been expanded in the DSM-III-R to provide a richer description of the
      disorder.  
      
      III. Panic Disorder
      
      A. Panic Attacks:  This is similar to Generalized Anxiety Disorder
      in that there is an anxiety response while there may be no clear
      life circumstance that would trigger such a response (there is
      evidence, however, that the initial panic attack is typically
      preceded by an identifiable stressful life event, such as divorce
      [Foa, Steketee & Young, 1984]).
           The distinction between Panic Disorder and Generalized Anxiety
      Disorder is that Panic Disorder is characterized by the occurrence
      of one or more unexpected "panic attacks" - discrete periods of
      intense fear or discomfort, rather than the chronic, free-floating
      fear found in Generalized Anxiety Disorder.  These attacks usually
      last a few minutes, although in rare cases they may last for a
      couple of hours.  The attacks often occur unexpectedly, leading to
      even more anxiety as the person wonders if he or she is going crazy
      or dying   
           The panic attacks typically occur several times a week, or
      even daily, and may continue to recur for years.  According to the
      DSM-III-R, Panic Disorder is the most common anxiety disorder among
      people seeking treatment.
      
           Case Study:  A 35-year-old mathematician gave a history of
      episodic palpitations and faintness over the previous 15 years. 
      There had been periods of remission of up to 5 years, but in the
      past year the symptoms had increased and in the last few days the
      patient had stopped working because of the distress.  His chief
      complaints were that at any time and without warning, he might
      suddenly feel he was about to faint and fall down, or tremble and
      experience palpitations, and if standing would cringe and clutch at
      the nearest wall or chair.  If he was driving a car at the time he
      would pull up at the curbside and wait for the feelings to pass off
      before he resumed his journey.  He was becoming afraid of walking
      alone in the street or of driving his car for fear that the
      episodes would be triggered by it and was loath to travel by public
      transport.  Although he felt safer when accompanied, this did not
      abolish his symptoms.  The attacks could come on at any time of day
      or night.  (Marks & Lader, 1973, p. 11).
      
      B. Agoraphobia:  A frequent complication of panic disorder is
      Agoraphobia: "the fear of being in places or situations from which
      escape might be difficult or in which help might not be available
      in the event of a panic attack" (APA, 1987, p.236).  
           Agoraphobia is thus not the fear of open spaces so much as the
      fear of fear (Barlow & Waddell, 1985).  One popular view held by
      psychologists is that agoraphobics are afraid of their own internal
      sensations of anxiety and panic.  The agoraphobia may develop as a
      secondary reaction to the distressing experience of the recurring
      panic attacks (Noyes, Crowe, Harris, Hamra & McChesney, 1986). 
      Because of their fear of these attacks, and the distress caused by
      the unexpectedness of the attack, the individual will end up
      restricting travel away from home, or else enduring intense anxiety
      if travel becomes necessary.  We saw this illustrated in the case
      study, where the man was increasingly fearful about walking alone,
      driving his car, and using public transportation.  Interestingly,
      some investigators have found a possible genetic link between panic
      and agoraphobia (Noyes, et al., 1986).
           The DSM-III-R acknowledges the connection between Panic and
      Agoraphobia by providing two separate diagnostic categories for
      Panic Disorder:
      
           1. Panic Disorder with Agoraphobia
           2. Panic Disorder without Agoraphobia
      
      Panic with Agoraphobia is much more common than panic without
      agoraphobia (APA, 1987; Barlow, 1988).  Between 2.8% and 5.7% of
      the general population suffer from panic with agoraphobia (Barlow,
      1988).  And finally, Panic with Agoraphobia is about twice as
      common in females than males.
      
      IV. Phobias
           
      A. Definition: The DSM-III-R refines a phobia as "a persistent,
      irrational fear of a specific object, activity, or situation that
      results in a compelling desire to avoid the dreaded object,
      activity or situation" (APA, 1987, p.403), although the person is
      aware that his or her fear is unreasonable and excessive.  [This
      definition is a bit confusing, however.  It requires the fear to be
      of something specific - but agoraphobia and some of the other
      phobias such as social phobias are not really about anything
      specific; they are about a general situation, activity, etc.]  
           The basic impairment:  limits a person's choices, forcing him
      or her into restricted and rigid behaviors.
           Traditionally, phobias were named by means of Greek prefixes
      that stood for the object that was feared.
      
           eg:xenophobia = fear of foreigners
              claustrophobia = fear of closed places
              acrophobia = fear of heights
      
      Such a practice is not widely used today - it is "jargony" and our
      knowledge of Greek isn't what it once was.  To give each fear its
      own term could add up to an unwieldy list indeed (see Handout 5-1)! 
      The DSM-III-R groups the phobias into 3 general types:
      
           1. Agoraphobia
           2. Social Phobia
           3. Simple Phobia
      
      B. Agoraphobia (without history of panic disorder):  The DSM-III-R
      provides this category as distinct from the Panic Disorder
      category, although it is not clear whether agoraphobia with no or
      limited panic symptoms is actually a separate disorder (APA, 1987):
      agoraphobia is rarely diagnosed without there also being, at some
      level, symptoms of panic.  For example, "out of 41 agoraphobics
      seen (at a clinic) during a period of 1 year, only 1 fit the
      diagnosis of agoraphobia without panic attacks, and even this
      particular classification was questionable...Do not expect to see
      too many agoraphobics without panic" (Barlow & Waddell, 1985,
      p.15).
      
           Agoraphobia is the most common phobia: 50%-80% of phobias
           diagnosed are agoraphobia (Chambless, 1982).
      
           The majority are women: eg: 88% (Seidenberg & DeCrow, 1983).
      
      C. Social Phobia:  Characterized by a persistent fear of one or
      more social situations where one might be exposed to the scrutiny
      and attention of others,as well as the fear that one may do
      something in those situations that will be humiliating or
      embarrassing.  
      
           eg: stage fright, fear of public speaking, generalized fear of
               most social situations.
           
      Case Study: "I sometimes don't go to class because I think the
      professor might call on me.  My fear doesn't have anything to do
      with being unprepared if he asks me a question because I'm almost
      always well prepared.  My grades on exams are always near the top
      of the class.  What I keep thinking about is that the professor and
      all the students will see how red my face gets whenever I have to
      say something in a group" (Sarason & Sarason, 1984, p. 140).
      
           Even prior to engaging in a social situation, a person with a
      social phobia will experience anxiety from merely anticipating the
      social encounter.  Thus, it is not surprising that he or she will
      often end up avoiding such situations all together.  As a result,
      some people will go through life feeling inadequate and lonely, yet
      afraid of becoming involved in interpersonal relationships.  
      
           Four common interpersonal fears:
              1. fear of asserting oneself
              2. fear of criticism
              3. fear of making a mistake
              4. fear of public speaking (Sarason & Sarason, 1984).
      
           In clinical sample (ie: people who have been diagnosed and/or
      are in treatment), social phobia is more common in males (APA,
      1987).  In the general population, however, this sex difference
      seems to disappear (Barlow, 1988).  Overall, approximately 1 - 2%
      of the population suffer from social phobia (Barlow, 1988).
      
      D. Simple Phobia:  A miscellaneous category made up of irrational
      fears of specific objects or situations not covered by Agoraphobia
      or Social Phobia.
           eg: fear of animals (dogs, cats, snakes, etc.), blood, closed
               spaces, heights, airplanes.
      
              (fear of animals is the most common Simple Phobia) (Barlow, 
               1988).
      
      Exposure to the feared object will typically result in an immediate
      anxiety response.  The feared object is therefore avoided.  (You
      should notice a common pattern with the anxiety disorders: that
      which is feared is avoided - Why might this be important?)
      
           Case Study: "I know it's crazy, but I really freak out when I
      see a german shepherd dog.  Even a picture will make me kind of
      nervous.  But if I see one for real, I start shaking, I can't think
      straight, all I want to do is get away.  If I'm talking to someone
      at the time I have trouble staying in the conversation - I'm just
      feeling like I really want to get away.  I know the dog won't
      really attack me, but I can't help being afraid anyways".
      
           Simple phobias are common in the general population, but
      because they rarely result in severe impairment, people suffering
      from Simple Phobias seldom end up in treatment (APA, 1987).  Simple
      phobias seem to be most common in women (Agras et al., 1969, APA,
      1987).  Handout 5-2 lists prevalence and sex distribution for seven
      phobias (Barlow, 1988)
      
      V. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
      
           People with this disorder experience recurring and persistent
      thoughts and acts which cause them significant distress.  
      
      A. Obsessions: persistent thoughts, impulses, or images that are
      experienced as intrusive and distressing.  Most common: Aggressive
      impulses (eg: killing one's child), contamination (eg: becoming
      infected by touching people), doubt (eg: wondering if you turned
      off the gas stove or not), sex (eg: images of culturally
      unacceptable sexual practices), concern over health (eg: worrying
      about the preservatives in your food), need for symmetry (eg:
      worrying that one's desk is not rigidly organized) (Akhtar, Wig,
      Verma, Pershad & Verma, 1975; Jenike, Baer & Minichiello, 1986).  
           Obsessions are internal, intrusive and anxiety provoking, and
      will occur daily if not many times a day.
      
           Case Study: A newly married young computer programmer...spent
      many long hours ruminating over whether she had or had not murdered
      a solitary old lady whom she had visited regularly.  This
      troublesome thought intruded repeatedly, seriously impaired her
      concentration, and provoked considerable discomfort and guilt. 
      Repeated enquiries, including several visits to the local police
      station, failed to satisfy her that the woman had in fact died of
      natural causes some days after the (woman) had last seen her. 
      (This) single tormenting obsessional rumination...had plagued her
      for years (Rachman & Hodgson, 1980, pg.257).
      
      B. Compulsions: repetitive and intentional behaviors or cognitions
      performed in response to an obsession.  The compulsion is designed
      to neutralize the anxiety caused by the obsession.  Whatever else
      the person has attempted to reduce the anxiety, it has not worked. 
      Where his/her control over the anxiety producing obsessions seems
      hopeless, he/she resorts to magic and ritual in a vain attempt to
      re-establish safety (Barlow, 1988).  As the person with a dog
      phobia will learn to avoid the dog, the person with an obsession
      will avoid the thought.
      
           Case study: A 38-year-old mother of one child was obsessed by
      a fear of contamination for over 20 years.  Her concern with the
      possibility of being infected by germs resulted in washing and
      cleaning rituals that invaded all aspects of her life.  Her child
      was restrained in one room, which was kept entirely germ free.  She
      opened and closed all doors with her feet in order to avoid
      contaminating her hands (Rachman & Hodgson, 1980, p. 111).
      
      Some typical compulsions (Rachman & Hodgson, 1980):
      
      1. Checking Rituals:  The obsessive fear is of some future
      imagined disaster.  Being ever vigilant and constantly
      checking the status of things relieves anxiety to a certain
      extent because it reassures the person that everything is in
      order.
      eg: Someone will rob my house or attack me if I leave the
          house unlocked ----> repeatedly checking all the doors and
          windows ----> normal activities are constantly interrupted, can't
          sleep.
      
      2. Cleaning Rituals: The fear is of contact with objects,
      people or situations that may be contaminating.  To restore
      safety, compulsive washing or other types of cleaning are
      engaged in.
      eg: Scrubbing hands and arms many times an hour for fear
      of having picked up some disease, even to the point where
      sores develop on the skin.
      
      Depression is a common complication: "up to 80% of people diagnosed
      with obsessive compulsive disorder also suffer from depression"
      (Barlow, 1988).  This shouldn't be surprising, given the
      distressing, time consuming, and interfering nature of obsessions
      and compulsions.  The prevalence is not clear, although it may be
      more common than once thought: 1.3 - 2% of the general population
      (Barlow, 1988).
      
      Note:  By "obsessive compulsive disorder", scientists mean
      something quite different from what people mean when they use it in
      their everday speech.  We might describe the guy with the clean
      desk as "obsessive" or "compulsive" but this does not mean he
      suffers from the symptoms just outlined.  We all have recurring
      thoughts, etc at times; this doesn't mean we have this disorder. 
      [Later in the course, we will also learn about a disorder called
      Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder - this is to be
      distinguished from the current anxiety disorder:  the personality
      disorder refers to a pervasive pattern of perfectionism and
      inflexibility, rather than to fairly well defined, recurring, and
      distressing thoughts and behaviors].
      
      
      VI. Post-traumatic stress disorder: [not covered.  See text]
      
      VII. Conclusions
      
           We have reviewed some of the disorders classified by the DSM-3-R as
      Anxiety Disorders.  Undoubtedly, you have experienced some of these
      symptoms to one degree or another at some time in your life.  Such
      experiences are not abnormal.  Anxiety becomes abnormal when it becomes
      excessive, irrational, and chronic.  The anxiety experienced by people
      suffering from these disorders is intrusive and disruptive to their
      everyday lives.
           But why do some people suffer from Anxiety Disorders, while others
      do not?  What are the causes of these disorders?  We will turn to these
      questions in the next lecture.
      
      Handout 5-2
      
      Prevalence and Sex Distribution of Phobias
      
                                                              
      Phobia    Prevalence per 1000   Sex distribution
      Illness/        31              m: 22
      injury                          f: 39
      
      Storms          13              m: 0
                                      f: 24
      
      Animals         11              m: 6
                                      f: 18
      
      Death            5              m: 4
                                      f: 6
      
      Crowds           4              m: 2
                                      f: 6
      
      Heights          4              m: 7
                                      f: 0
                                                               
      
      (from Barlow, 1988)