Lecture 17
      
                                Personality Disorders
      
      
      Lecture Outline
      
      I.  Introduction
      II. Differentiation between personality disorders and Axis I disorders
           A. Anxiety and Mood Disorders
           B. Psychotic Disorders
      III.DSM-III-R Diagnostic Categories
      IV. A note on "Sex Bias"
      V.  Proposed DSM-III-R Categories
      VI.  Conclusion
      
                     -------------------------------------------
      
      I. Introduction
      
           Up to this point we have been looking at "Axis I disorders" -
      disorders recorded on Axis I of the DSM-III diagnostic system.  Most of
      the diagnoses are made on this axis.  However, DSM-III also has Axis II: 
      Here are recorded the so-called Personality Disorders.  
      
           DSM-III-R definition of "Personality Traits":  "Enduring patterns
      of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and
      oneself."  These patterns or traits "are exhibited in a wide range of
      important social and personal contexts" (APA, 1987, p.335).
      
           DSM-III-R definition of "Personality Disorders":  When personality
      traits "are inflexible and maladaptive and cause either significant
      impairment or subjective distress" (APA, 1987, p.335).
           In other words, we are talking about deeply ingrained, basic
      patterns of relating to the world and oneself; patterns that
      characterize the person's long-term functioning.  Such personality
      disturbances are often seen early in the person's life, and they
      continue through adulthood.  Individuals with personality disorders
      exhibit recurrent maladaptive behaviors in a wide range of areas,
      especially in their interpersonal relationships.  These people are often
      quite dissatisfied with their lives.  Not surprisingly, anxiety and
      depression are common complications.
      
      II.  Differentiation between personality disorders and Axis I disorders
      
      A.  Anxiety and Mood Disorders
      
           The symptoms experienced by individuals suffering from anxiety
      or mood disorders tend to be "ego-dystonic".  That is, the problems
      and difficulties they experience are unacceptable, objectionable,
      and alien to the self.  In contrast, the problems experienced by a
      person with a personality disorder are often perceived as "ego-
      syntonic":  acceptable, unobjectionable, and part of the self. 
      When they do confront problems in their lives, people with
      personality disorders will blame others (Marmar, 1987).
      
      B. Psychotic Disorders
      
           It is true there can be severe social and occupational
      impairments associated with the personality disorders, but
      persistent psychotic features, delusions and hallucinations do not
      occur.  There can be transient psychotic states in certain
      personality disorders (esp.: borderline) - but these episodes are
      short-lived and normally do not require medication or
      hospitalization (Marmar, 1987).  Individuals with personality
      disorders are (usually) in touch with reality.  
      
      III. DSM-III-R Diagnostic Categories
      
           The DSM-III-R groups the personality disorders into three clusters:
      
                Cluster A:  disorders marked by odd or eccentric behaviors.  
                                   paranoid
                                   schizoid
                                   schizotypal
                Cluster B:  disorders characterized by dramatic, emotional or
                            erratic behaviors.
                                   antisocial
                                   borderline
                                   histrionic
                                   narcissistic
                Cluster C:  disorders characterized by anxious or fearful      
                            behaviors. 
                                   avoidant
                                   dependent
                                   obsessive compulsive
                                   passive aggressive
      
      A.  Paranoid Personality Disorder
      
           [on overhead: DSM-III-R diagnostic criteria]
           Case study:  see attached
           When in a new situation, the person will actively search for
      any "confirmation" of his/her paranoid beliefs: a nice self-
      fulfilling prophecy.
           This is how the person always operates.  Individuals with this
      disorder thus have significant problems in their relationships. 
      Indeed, they shun intimacy.  They are rigid and uncompromising;
      hostile, stubborn, and defensive (Marmar, 1987).  
      
           Prevalence:  Unknown - these people rarely seek help (which is
      to be expected, given the nature of the disorder).
      
           Sex ratio:  More common in men
      
      B. Schizoid Personality Disorder
      
           [on overhead: DSM-III-R diagnostic criteria]
           Case study: see attached
           These are "loners".  They are excessively self-absorbed and
      detached, both socially and emotionally.  They do better at work
      (especially when contact with others in not necessary) than they do
      in interpersonal relationships.  While these patterns typically
      begin in childhood, that is not to suggest that all shy children go
      on to develop a schizoid personality disorder.
           Prevalence:  Not yet established (Marmar, 1987), although it
      is low in clinical settings (APA, 1987).  But again, these people
      also rarely seek help. 
           Sex ratio: Unknown
      
      C.  Schizotypal Personality Disorder
      
           [on overhead: DSM-III-R diagnostic criteria]
           Case study:  see attached
           This disorder is apparently related to Schizophrenia, both in
      symptomatology and etiology.  Symptoms:  peculiar and bizarre
      thoughts, beliefs, behaviors, emotions, perceptions, etc.  However,
      these symptoms are much less severe than that found in
      schizophrenia.  Etiology: Schizotypal Personality Disorder seems to
      share a genetic relationship with schizophrenia:  relatives of
      Schizophrenic persons are more likely to exhibit schizotypal
      symptoms than are genetically unrelated persons (Kendler, 1985). 
      Some researchers even suggest that schizotypal personality disorder
      is actually a milder or "borderline" form of schizophrenia
      (Kendler, 1985).  
           Prevalence: about 3% of the population (APA, 1987).
           Sex Ratio: unknown
      
      D. Antisocial Personality Disorder
      
           [on overhead: excerpts from DSM-III-R criteria]
           Case study:  see attached
           Unlike the other personality disorders, where the individual
      usually harms him/herself more than he/she harms others, the person
      with an antisocial personality disorder harms others:  chronic
      indifference and violation of others' rights (Cadoret, 1986), what
      colloquially we call the "psychopath".  This personality disorder
      is the most widely researched personality disorder, and the most
      reliably diagnosed.  This is why your text (indeed, most
      introductory texts!) emphasize this disorder.
           Prevalence and sex ratio:  males - 3%
                                      females - less than 1%
      
      E. Borderline Personality Disorder
      
           [on overhead: DSM-III-R diagnostic criteria]
           Case study: see attached
           Instability is the hallmark here.  There is thus often
      considerable interference with social and occupational functioning. 
      We will discuss this disorder in more detail next lecture.  
           Prevalence: Apparently common, although this may be because    
                       the diagnosis is currently "fashionable".  This
                       disorder also tends to co-occur with many of the
                       other personality disorders - it has fuzzy
                       boundaries
           Sex ratio:  more common in females, with a 2:1 to 9:1 ratio,   
                       depending on the sample.
      
      F. Histrionic Personality Disorder
      
           [on overhead: DSM-III-R diagnostic criteria]
           Case study: see attached
           People with this disorder are lively and dramatic, always
      drawing attention to themselves.  While they may be attractive and
      appealing initially, relationships with them are superficial.  They
      are sometimes described as excessively flirtatious.    
           Prevalence: Apparently common.  There is some evidence of      
                       increased familial incidence (Marmar, 1987).
           Sex Ratio:  much more common in females than males.  (Note:
      this disorder can be seen as an exaggerated stereotype of women. 
      Should this concern us?  More on this in a moment).  One hypothesis
      is that HPD and Antisocial PD are closely related - the former is
      merely the female expression of the disorder, and the latter the
      male expression.
      
      G. Narcissistic Personality Disorder
      
           [on overhead: DSM-III-R diagnostic criteria]
           Case study: see attached
           Here is the person who is "full of themselves": grandiose,
      unempathetic, exploitative...  Narcissistic individuals attempt to
      sustain an image of perfection and personal invincibility for
      themselves and others (Marmar, 1987).  Depression and chronic
      intense envy are common.  While they may run into all sorts of
      problems in their relationships and on the job, certain individuals
      may be quite successful in occupational spheres as they are driven
      to succeed.
           Prevalence: Appears to be common, although this has not always 
                       been so.  Perhaps the increased rates recently     
                       noted are due more to professional interest than
                       to actual increases.
           Sex Ratio:  Unknown.
      
      H. Avoidant Personality Disorder
      
           [on overhead: DSM-III-R diagnostic criteria]
           Case study: see attached
           Unlike Schizoid Personality Disorder, in Avoidant Personality
      Disorder there is a desire for social involvement.  The individual
      yearns for affection and acceptance, but is immobilized by his/her
      timidity and hypersensitivity, especially regarding fear of
      rejection.  Difference with Social Phobia:  Social phobia is
      usually of a specific situation, not interpersonal relationships.
           Prevalence:  Apparently common
           Sex ratio:  Unknown
      
      I. Dependent Personality Disorder
      
           [on overhead: DSM-III-R diagnostic criteria]
           Case study: see attached
           The key features are excessive dependent, submissive and
      passive behavior patterns.  The individual seems incapable of
      making his/her own decisions or living independently.  The
      individual will belittle what skills he/she does have.  Being alone
      is painful; the individual is frequently depressed and anxious.
           Prevalence: Apparently common
           Sex ratio:  More common in females (Again, stereotypic         
                       behavior patterns..?)
      
      J. Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder
      
           [on overhead: DSM-III-R diagnostic criteria]
           Case study: see attached
           This is different from the anxiety disorder known as obsessive
      compulsive disorder.  In the anxiety disorder, there are intrusive
      and unwanted thoughts and possible accompanying compulsive
      behaviors.  In Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder, there are
      no true obsessions or compulsions.  Rather, there is the pervasive
      general drive for perfectionism and inflexibility.  The two
      disorders can, however, coexist.   
           Prevalence: Unknown
           Sex ratio:  Frequently diagnosed in men (Marmar, 1987)         
                      (another stereotypic bias?)
      
      K. Passive Aggressive Personality Disorder
      
           [on overhead: DSM-III-R diagnostic criteria]
           Case study: see attached
           An individual with this disorder is thus indirect in his/her
      communications and actions.  Rather than just saying "no, I don't
      want to", he/she engages in all sorts of indirect resistances. 
      S/he finds ways of not doing what s/he is supposed to, but never
      through direct refusal; rather s/he procrastinates, dawdles, makes
      mistakes, etc.  
           The name of this disorder implies that the passive behaviors
      are a cover for feelings of resentfulness and hostility.  So,
      rather than directly expressing the anger, the person passively
      expresses it through indirect means.
           Prevalence and sex ratio:  Unknown
      
      IV.  A note on "Sex Bias"
      
           The pattern of "sex bias" that we have noted is a curious one
      indeed.
                FEMALES                  MALES
              borderline               paranoid
              histrionic               antisocial
              dependent                obsessive compulsive
      
      When we look at the characteristics of these different disorders, it
      looks like they are being defined in terms of stereotypic male/female
      behavior patterns.  There has been considerable debate from feminist
      writers that many of these disorders are based on behavior patterns
      which our culture expects from women - so women are overly represented
      in these categories because that's how they've been taught to act.  In
      essence, what the critics argue is that we have turned typical female
      behavior patterns into a psychopathology.  Similarly, women who attempt
      to break out of these patterns by being assertive and independent are
      also diagnosed as having other disorder - borderline perhaps.  It's a no
      win situation.  And it's a situation that has little to do with science,
      and more to do with politics.  The story doesn't stop here, by any
      means... as we shall see in the next section.
      
      VI.  Proposed DSM-III-R categories
      
           Two new Personality Disorders have been proposed in the DSM-III-R:
      Sadistic personality disorder and Self-defeating personality disorder. 
      These are placed in an appendix, and described as needing more study
      before the validity of the disorders is established.  It has been argued
      that such diagnoses are needed to account for a not uncommon subset of
      patients seen in therapy:  those who are unusually cruel and violent in
      their relationships, and those who seem to go out of their way to engage
      in self-defeating behaviors.  Some therapists argue that these two
      personality types might account for some of the domestic violence that
      occurs, and especially for why the violent relationships continue.
           [on overhead: the DSM-III-R diagnostic criteria for both disorders]
           There is, however, much debate over the scientific validity of
      these proposed categories.  Some people are arguing that these
      categories ignore the social realities that abused women find themselves
      in.  Critics argue that by diagnosing the woman we focus on the wrong
      thing.  If we start diagnosing abused women (and their abusers), will
      the real economic and social injustices that give rise to this abuse be
      obscured and ignored?  Such is the concern of the critics.  We end up
      "blaming" the woman, and obscuring the more important social problems.  
           Extremely heated debates ensued when the authors of the DSM-III
      proposed these new categories for the revised version of the manual.  As
      a compromise, the categories are in an appendix.  Nevertheless, there is
      still a lot of controversy over the political nature of the manual. 
      Indeed, as we noted, some of the other personality disorders also seem
      to be merely stereotyped descriptions of male and female sex roles
      (Kaplan, 1983).  The personality disorders are some of the most
      controversial and debated diagnostic categories in the DSM-III.  We will
      return to other controversies next lecture.
      
      V. Conclusion
           We have looked at the various Personality Disorders as defined by
      the DSM-III-R.  These people are very difficult to relate to on a
      personal level.  People diagnosed with some of these disorders (esp:
      borderline, dependent, narcissistic and passive-aggressive) have even
      been described as the "hateful patients" (Groves, 1978) because of the
      manipulative and rejecting behaviors common with these people.